The importance of philosophy, for today, and for all times, is clear if we think about what philosophy actually is. It is easy to use the word philosophy without understanding what it means. It breaks down to two Greek words: philo (loving) and sophia (knowledge, wisdom, truth). The word truth is the best word to translate sophia. So, philosophy means love of truth. Now, it is easy to see why philosophy is always important. No good human action can happen unless the mind first understands some truth. If a human has a false belief, then generally, actions arising from that false belief will not meet a high standard. True beliefs, good actions, false beliefs, bad actions. It is very practical.
For example, if you believe the grocery store is on the north side of town, when it is actually on the south side of town, then you will go to the north side of town and fail to get any food. Such an action would be regarded as an error, a failure. Because knowing truth is important, philosophy is important, since philosophy is basically the diligent effort to know truth. Philosophy studies truth on many different levels. What is truth? What is truth of? Truth of what? How do we know when we have knowledge of truth? Philosophy studies these kinds of questions. Looking at it this way, it is clear that philosophy is in the background of every academic discipline.
Going to the next question: How do we use epistemology to teach machines? I will name just a few ways. Epistemology studies truths that are well known, and those that are less well known. There is a distinction between the two. For example, we know very well that 4 + 4 = 8, but less well known is the type of rock on Pluto. Epistemology shows us that universal truths, such as mathematical truths, are easier to know in themselves, since they are true in all times and places and do not require any particular sensory experience to be justified as true. (Although, you might require some sensory experience to first come to know them as true.) This offers a principle for teaching machines: the machines should be built on truths that are absolutely known to be true, such as mathematical truths, logical truths, and geometric truths. Built on such foundations, the machines will generally be more reliable.
In addition, we can see how another, more practical, principle in epistemology is used in teaching machines. We have the principle of testimony. Some things we cannot ourselves know, due to practical factors, but others can. For example, an Australian man is not able to know what the forests are like in China. So, he goes to the encyclopedia and reads about them. Here, the man trusts that the encyclopedia contains true information about the forests in China. The man uses the principle of testimony. To use this principle well, reliable sources of testimony are to be distinguished from unreliable ones. Machines can use this principle, too, in order to build their knowledge bases. The biology article about bear behavior should be added to the knowledge base, since it is written by a professor and more reliable, but an informal poem about bear behavior, written by an anonymous person, should not be added to the knowledge base, at least not immediately, without some additional method to determine its reliability.
Moving, briefly, to the final question: How are logical fallacies used in marketing? Ideally, logical fallacies should not be present in marketing. However, logical fallacies may indeed be observed in marketing. For example, there is the general fallacy of association. Just because the product is used, or endorsed, by a well-known or esteemed person, does not necessarily mean that the product itself is good. The conclusion does not proceed from the premise: this is called a non-sequitur. Another powerful fallacy may be called the false desire loop. The marketing appeals to basic, human desire as a method to bring about an affirmation of the product’s goodness. For example, many humans are invigorated by being out in nature and find something meaningful about hiking in the mountains. A car advertisement may exploit this desire, by proposing, in a quiet way, the idea: if you do not purchase this expensive SUV, you will not be able to enjoy the natural beauty of the mountains. This idea may be received subconsciously, due to strategy of the ad. See how this fallacy leverages the strong, natural human desire as fuel to purchase the product. There are other logical fallacies in marketing, too.
