Please I need help! Philosophy, Logic.

Question

A) Identify whether the argument is deductively valid or invalid

1) If one studies hard, then one will pass the test

George passed the test .

Thus, George studied hard.

2) Most professors are friendly

Jasmine is a professor .

So Jasmine must be friendly .

Answer 1

Both of these are invalid.

In case 1), we can accept both of the first two statements, but still deny that the conclusion is true. For example, consider a world where George cheats and doesn't get caught. It could still be true that if he studied hard, then he'd pass the test, and also be true that he passed the test. Notice that the example is one where George does not study hard, since he cheats. Therefore, it's an invalid argument.

It is really similar in case 2). All we have accepted is that MOST professors are friendly. So, presumably, there are some unfriendly professors, and maybe Jasmine is one of them. Therefore, it is invalid.